Karl Otto Himmler, manufacturer of the first contact lens

1. Introduction 

The first publication in the literature of contact lenses was that by Adolf Eugen Fick in 1888 [1] in which he reported his experiments in fitting rabbits’ eyes with blown glass shells that had been made from Plaster of Paris casts of their eyes. After many trials, these were abandoned and replaced with glass ‘vesicles’ with diameters of 19, 20 and 21mm. He then made plaster casts of the eye of a cadaver. A glass ‘vesicle’ was blown from this cast and worn by Fick for two hours without symptoms apart from lacrimation. Fick then asked Professor Ernst Abbe, of the Carl Zeiss company in Jena, to make some ground scleral shells to the specification shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Nominal and measured specifications of the earliest scleral contact shells and lenses

		Fick (1888)	Kalt (1888)	Müller (1889)
	Mode of manufacture	Blown	Blown	Ground
	Manufacturer	Abbe of Carl Zeiss	Unknown	Otto Himmler
	Front optic zone radius			10.00¶	9.75	9.80	9.55
	Back optic zone radius	8.00¶		8.00¶	7.65	7.62	7.06
	Primary optic diameter	14.00¶			10.5	10	9.70‡
	Geometrical centre thickness				0.315	0.375	0.350
	Back scleral radius	15.00¶		12.00¶
	Total diameter	20.00¶	16.00–22.00	20.00¶	15.30–15.50	16.00–16.40	16.50–16.90
	Back vertex power	Shell	Shell with ‘very irregular refraction’	−12.16*	−15.00	−14.50	−19.00

Notes: (a): ¶signifies nominal values; (b): Kalt's shells were measured by Haas (1937) [5] and three of Müller's lenses were measured by Heitz (1981) [24]; (c): *calculated assuming a geometrical centre thickness of 0.35mm and a refractive index of 1.51 [7]; (d) ‡calculated by the author from Heitz's measurements. This lens is identified as ‘c’ in Fig. 4.

Fick's concern was the improvement of visual acuity in irregular astigmatism and he tried the shells in six selected cases. Although his data demonstrated slight improvement all of them, he concluded that useful visual gain was only obtained in one case in which the other eye was normal, a situation which he considered did not justify further experiments. Fick's seminal paper has been subjected to a critical appraisal [2].

Also published in 1888 was the brief report by Panas on the use by his junior colleague, Eugène Kalt, of a scleral shell in a single case of keratoconus, with which he achieved a dramatic increase in visual acuity [3]. A translation into English of Panas's report together with a detailed analysis of Kalt's contribution has been published [4]. Kalt's original shells had a total diameter of 16 to 22mm and were blown having a ‘very irregular refraction’ (Table 1) [5]. Kalt subsequently had some lenses cut from crystal which had a front optic zone radius of 7.90mm, total diameters of 11.00, 11.50 and 13.00mm and powers of 1.00 to 2.00D (vertex and sign not stated) [5].

Of special importance in the history of contact lenses was the presentation in 1889 by August Müller of his Inaugural Dissertation in which he described, for the first time, the use of scleral contact lenses in the refractive correction of myopia [6]. Müller made the remarkable claim that he was able to correct his own myopia of −14.00D, presumably spectacle refraction, to within half a dioptre. An English translation of part III of Müller's dissertation dealing with ‘cornea-lenses’ and a comprehensive evaluation of his achievement have been published [7].

In a letter dated 18 April 1932, Müller wrote that in 1887 he had been unsuccessful in trying to interest the firm of Carl Zeiss in the manufacture of scleral lenses [8]. Having had his request rejected by this major company, it is not surprising that he turned to a smaller firm that was willing to execute unusual orders. Müller referred to the manufacturer of his lenses only as ‘Himmler, an optician in Berlin’ but he was subsequently identified by Fick in 1892 as Otto Himmler [9]. Attempts by Pearson & Efron (1989) to obtain information about this skilled individual were unsuccessful [7].

Although Müller failed in his attempts to make plaster impressions of the eye of a living person, he did make an impression of an artificial eye and it was Himmler who established that the radii of the ‘corneal’ and 'scleral’ portions were 7.5 and 14.0mm, respectively. The means by which he arrived at these values was not reported. According to Müller, ‘The posterior surfaces of the lenses were successfully ground with the aid of galvano-plastic copies made from the original impression’.

The specification of lenses designed and used by August Müller are compared with those of the shells used by Fick [1] and Kalt [4] in Table 1.

2. Identification of Otto Himmler 

In April 2003, the author entered the term ‘Otto Himmler’ into an Internet search engine and discovered a Web page in which it was stated that a microscope manufacturer of that name had existed since the late 19th century in Berlin [10]. Although it seemed likely that the manufacturer of the first contact lens had at last been identified, the possibility remained that other ‘opticians’ with the same name might have been working in Berlin at that time.

It is known that Müller's lenses were made in 1887 [8]. Remarkably, the Berliner Adressbuch (Berlin Directory) for the years 1799 to 1943 [11] is accessible on the Internet, making it possible to search for an individual by name. In 1887, only one Himmler is listed who is described as a ‘mechanic and optician’ specialising in the manufacture of objectives for microscopes (see Fig. 1). Notwithstanding the absence of documentary proof, such as correspondence between August Müller and Otto Himmler, it is reasonable to conclude from the evidence provided by the directory that the first scleral contact lenses were made by the latter's firm.

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Fig. 1. The Berlin Directory for 1887 which lists (4th name down) only one ‘Himmler, O’ who is a described as a ‘mechanic and optician’.

3. Karl Otto Himmler 

According to one source, ‘Karl Otto Himmler (?–1899) worked in 1870 as a fitter for Ernst Gundlach (1834–1908) in Berlin and later for Wilhelm (1840–1925) and Heinrich (1842–1907) Seibert in Wetzlar. The firm of Himmler & Barthning was established in Berlin in 1877 and after a few years was just that of Otto Himmler’ [10].

Since it has been established by the author that Himmler did not die in 1899, the above biographical details must be treated with caution. In fact, Karl Otto Himmler was born on the 30th October 1841, the son of Karl Himmler, a shoemaker [12]. Having derived his first name from his father, it is not surprising that both he and his firm were known as Otto Himmler. It is, nevertheless, entirely plausible that Himmler acquired his engineering and optical skills having been employed by microscope manufacturers before establishing his own business since others are known to have followed such a course.

Ernst Gundlach worked for other companies before starting his own optical manufacturing firm in Wetzlar in 1859. He quickly went out of business and moved to England. In 1861, his occupation was described as ‘machinist’ and he was living with his wife, Emilie and infant daughter at 9 Alfred Street, Finsbury, London [13]. He is believed to have returned to Germany in 1865 and from 1866, manufactured microscopes in Berlin until becoming bankrupt in 1872. His workshop was bought by the Seibert brothers together with a businessman, Georg Kraft, and in the following year the firm, known as ‘E.Gundlach's successors Seibert & Kraft’ transferred to Wetzlar. When Kraft left the company in 1884 it was known simply as ‘W. & H. Seibert’ [14].

Thus, Himmler may well have been employed firstly by Gundlach in Berlin and then by the Seibert brothers in Wetzlar before starting his own firm which was established in 1877 [15]. In that year he became a member of the Deutschen Gesellschaft für Mechanik und Optik (German Society for Mechanics and Optics) [16].

On the 18th November 1871, Karl Otto Himmler married Henriette Emilie Alwine Höck, the daughter of Johann Höck who, like Himmler's father, was a shoemaker [12]. Himmler died at the age of 61 years, on the 22nd June 1903 at Karlstrasse 38 which since 1947 has been known as Reinhardstrasse [17] and the cause of his death was recorded as valvular heart disease [18]. He was survived by his widow and five children [19]. Two affectionate announcements of his death made by his family and staff, respectively, refer to the fact that he had suffered a grave illness for a long time [20]. The former indicated that he was a father, father-in-law and a grandfather. An obituary on behalf of the committee of the Berlin section of the Deutschen Gesellschaft für Mechanik und Optik acknowledged that as a result of his hard work, his small firm had achieved wide recognition and that he had been both respected and well-liked [16]. Himmler was buried on the 25th June 1903 in the cemetery of St Jakobi-Kirche (St James church), Berlin. [19].

4. The firm of Otto Himmler 

A catalogue of 79 pages for 1906 bearing the date November 1905 confirms that Himmler's firm was established in 1877 [15]. In addition to the manufacture of microscopes and their accessories, the company produced equipment for microphotography and projection. It also offered to undertake the repair, modification and adaptation of equipment. The title page of the catalogue reveals that the firm had been awarded exhibition medals in 1880 in Berlin, in 1888 in Brussels, in 1890 in Berlin and in 1900 in Paris. The company had, therefore, been in operation for 10 years when August Müller submitted his request for the manufacture of scleral contact lenses.

A catalogue, written in English and identified as number 30, describes a wide range of microscopes, loupes, illumination systems, mechanical stages, drawing apparatus, a haemacytometer, polarizing apparatus, photomicrographic apparatus with a swinging support for micro-stereoscopy, microtomes, sundries and instruments for dissection [21] (Fig. 2). Although undated, it is stated that the prices were valid from 1 April 1928. The preface includes the statement: ‘Our motto being – Perfect construction – High efficiency – Minute accuracy – Superb finish’. The final page of the catalogue claims that ‘Our instruments are sold in all countries’.

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Fig. 2. Logo of the firm of Otto Himmler as used in its catalogue number 30 of 1928.

A search of the Berlin Directory failed to reveal the location of either Himmler or his firm between 1877 and 1878. It is possible that the business started in Wetzlar and then moved to Berlin in order to distinguish itself from that of his former employers, W. & H. Seibert. The Directory reveals that the three successive locations from 1879 were:

	1879 to 1886	Simeonstrasse 27. This street ceased to exist in 1959 as a consequence of the re-development of Franz-Künstler-Strasse [22]
	1887 to 1903	Brandenburgstrasse 9. In 1962, this street was re-named Lobeckstrasse [23]
	1904 to 1943	Oranienburgerstrasse 65 N24. The move to this address took place on the 1st April 1904 nine months after Karl Otto Himmler's death and his widow, Alwine, was listed as owner of the firm. Oranienburgerstrasse has retained its name to the present day.

Few copies of the register of companies in Berlin have survived but those for 1909, 1918, 1922 and 1930 show that throughout that period, Alwine Himmler retained ownership of the firm. She is last listed in the Berlin Directory for 1933 at Lindenallee 59, Weisensee [11]. It seems, therefore, that she may have died in that year or in 1934 but who subsequently became the owner of the company remains unknown.

A son of the Himmler's, Ferdinand Oskar Otto, was born on the 18th September 1881 who at the time of his death from pneumonia on 8th March 1936 was described as a ‘mechanic’ and his address was recorded as Lindenallee 60 which was next to his mother's home [24]. Another son, Georg Max Richard, who was born on 6th December 1883, died on 22nd August 1937 following appendicitis. The records indicate that he was a businessman who also lived at Lindenallee 60, which he owned together with number 59. He was survived by his brother, whose name was recorded only as Felix, who lived at Oranienburgerstrasse 65, the address of the firm of Otto Himmler. [25]. It is conceivable that Felix Himmler was the final proprietor of the company.

It has not been possible to discover exactly when and why the firm of Otto Himmler ceased to exist but its demise is probably associated with the fact that its premises in Oranienburgerstrasse were substantially damaged during World War II. Fig. 3 provides an impression of the devastation of Berlin in 1945. It is known that the Neue Synagoge (New Synagogue) at Oranienburgerstrasse 28–30 suffered extensive bomb damage on the night of 22/23 March 1943 (Personal communication with Dr. Hermann Simon, Director of the Centrum Judaicum, Berlin).

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Fig. 3. A badly damaged area of Berlin between Friedrichshain and Lichtenberg (about three to four miles from Oranienburgerstrasse) in 1945.

The building at number 65 was not fully restored until 1995 (Personal communication with Theo Knauer of Augen-Atelier, a firm now at this addresses which fits glass ocular prostheses) and the delay in its reconstruction may be due to some extent to the fact that it was situated on the Communist side of the ‘Berlin Wall’, demolition of which began in November 1989.

5. Fick's clinical results with lenses made by Himmler 

Having learnt of August Müller's dissertation, Fick sent the shells that he had obtained from Professor Abbe to Otto Himmler who informed him that they had not been ground but had been very well blown [9]. Himmler supplied Fick with two lenses which he described as ‘one with a glass cornea and sclera and the other with a glass cornea and metal sclera cemented together; both glass-corneas were ground and polished’.

Fick tabulated the refraction and visual acuity of seven patients (10 eyes) together with the spherical over-refraction and visual acuity with ‘contact glasses’. He did not mention the specification of the ‘contact glasses’, which may have been either shells or lenses. Two eyes had a spherical refraction and in seven eyes the magnitude of the astigmatism was between 1.00 and 2.50D. Visual acuity in these nine eyes improved with the ‘contact glass’ by one or two lines. There was no improvement in visual acuity in one patient with simple hyperopic astigmatism of 5.00D who today would probably be diagnosed as exhibiting astigmatic amblyopia. For nine eyes, the spherical over-refraction was similar to the spectacle refraction. If the ‘contact glass’ used was approximately afocal, then the back optic zone radius must have been similar to the subjects’ corneal curvature.

When Himmler sent the two lenses to Fick, he expressed the request that he be spared similar orders in the future since, despite a price of 38 marks, he had not made any profit. On the basis of the retail price index, the sterling equivalent of 38 marks in 1892 was worth £134 in 2005 (Exchange rate supplied in a personal communication with Deputy Archivist, Bank of England). It is possible that Himmler also wished to discourage further orders for scleral lenses since they represented an unwelcome distraction to his core business of manufacturing microscopes and their accessories.

Fick concluded his paper by commenting that the Swiss ophthalmologist David Sulzer had been able to obtain lenses from Benzoni of Geneva and Benvist (sic) Berthiot of Paris and expressed his disappointment that German opticians were unwilling or unable to undertake such work.

6. Survival of lenses made by Otto Himmler 

Three lenses made by Karl Otto Himmler for August Müller have been held since 1932 by the Deutsches Museum in Munich (Fig. 4) and their dimensions and powers were measured by Heitz in 1981 [26] (see Table 1). In view of the high powers of these lenses (−15.00, −14.50 and −19.00D), it is unfortunate that Heitz did not specify at that time whether he had measured front or back vertex power but he has subsequently confirmed that it was the latter [27]. Using Heitz's data in Table 1 for front optic zone radius, back optic zone radius, geometrical centre thickness and back vertex power, it can be calculated that the refractive index was 1.5564, 1.521 and 1.534 for lenses a, b, and c, respectively. If they were, in fact, made from glass of the same refractive index, then his measurements must have been subject to some error. Back scleral radius of these lenses was not measured.

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Fig. 4. Three scleral lenses made by Otto Himmler now in the Deutsches Museum, Munich. The inscription on the plaque reads ‘Ground contact glasses for putting on the cornea as a substitute for glasses in short- and long-sighted (people). Constructed in 1887 and donated by San. Rat Dr A Müller, München Gladbach.

It would have been of value if Heitz had commented on the appearance of the images obtained with the focimeter and optical microspherometer since this information would have provided a useful and valid assessment of the optical quality of the lenses. However, he did remark that the surfaces of the lenses were perfectly polished and without any roughness. The intersections of curves were said to be ‘progressive and perfectly rounded’. The edges were well made and even under magnification no imperfection was observed [26].

It is interesting to note that the lens labelled ‘c’ (Fig. 4) has a transition 1.70mm wide with a radius of 10.00mm between the back optic zone radius and the back scleral radius. This important feature was not commonly found on preformed scleral lenses until many years later and Müller made no specific mention of it [6]. In contrast, blown scleral lenses of that period had a gradual transition between the optic and scleral portions.

It was recognised in 1929 that problems with Carl Zeiss scleral lenses could occur ‘when the eyeball deviates from a spherical shape’ and it was mentioned that attempts would be made to smooth the junction of the optic and scleral zones [28]. However, in 1933, cross-section diagrams of Zeiss lenses still illustrated them without a transition curve and with a primary optic diameter of 12mm [29]. In the same year, a United States patent (1,921,971) was granted with Fertsch and Hartinger as assignors to the Zeiss company in respect of a transition, the purpose of which was to eliminate contact with the cornea by the otherwise sharp intersection of the back optic zone radius and back scleral radius. An accompanying patent with the same assignors (1,921,972) covered designs for transitions that ranged from homolateral offset to contralateral offset. It is not known which, if any, of these constructions was subsequently incorporated in the standard Zeiss manufacturing process. Certainly, the clinical benefit of incorporating a spherical transition in preformed scleral lenses had been well established by 1948. [30].

In the light of subsequent clinical knowledge, the primary optic diameters (10.50, 10.00 and 9.70mm) and back optic zone radii (7.65, 7.62 and 7.06mm) of the lenses are small and steep, respectively. For a normal, healthy adult eye, a primary optic diameter in the region of 13.50mm may be required to ensure limbal clearance and would be associated together with a back optic zone radius of about 8.50mm (i.e. about 0.75mm flatter than the keratometry reading). It is not surprising that Müller wrote that ‘The most irritating sensations were felt with a lens which had a posterior radius of 7.0mm ground with a 11mm diameter, such that it was impossible for the cornea to come into contact with the lens’. [5]. Although Müller correctly understood that such an optic zone specification would ensure apical corneal clearance, he did not appreciate that the limbal clearance was inadequate.

7. Conclusion 

Karl Otto Himmler merits wide recognition as the first manufacturer of a contact lens for which the dimensions and power had been specified by the medical student, August Müller. The lenses that he made were a glass, preformed scleral design and had been ground and polished. Nearly a century after they had been manufactured, they were considered to have been well made.

Müller's inspiration, combined with Himmler's skill, resulted in correction of myopia of −14.00D to within half a dioptre, representing the first occasion on which a refractive error had been corrected with a contact lens. Doubtless many present day practitioners would feel relieved if they achieved the same outcome with a refractive error of this magnitude with the first lens fitted!

It was entirely thanks to Himmler's knowledge and expertise that Fick learned that the scleral shells that he originally used had not been ground but had been blown. Despite the relatively short duration of Himmler's involvement with contact lens manufacture, the quality of his ground lenses enabled Müller and Fick to publish results that encouraged others to follow successfully in their footsteps.

Various associations of contact lens manufacturers confer awards and perhaps one of these should provide an eponymous recognition of the unique, pioneering contribution made by Karl Otto Himmler.